Practices and perceptions of strength and conditioning training in female golf: A cross-sectional survey study of high-level amateur players.

This study aims to ascertain an in-depth understanding of current practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level amateur female golfers. A cross-sectional, explorative survey study was constructed which asked questions relating to four key areas: i) general participant information, ii) current strength and conditioning (S&C) practices, iii) the perceived influence of S&C training on golf performance, and iv) knowledge and awareness of S&C. Results showed that the majority of female players had participated in some form of S&C training in the past, with the majority believing that clubhead speed and carry distance were the primary golfing metrics which could be positively impacted. More specifically, 91-97% of the players "Strongly agreed" or "Agreed" that the key physical characteristics for golf were strength and power for the lower and upper body, and flexibility. Interestingly, 58% of the players believed that S&C training should mimic the movement of the golf swing, which based off current evidence, is not how drive metrics and ultimately shots gained, can be maximised. This survey study provides useful information relating to the practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level female amateur players and areas where education may be able to further advance player understanding of physical preparation.

The effect of quiet eye training on golf putting performance in pressure situation.

To explores the effect and mechanism of quiet eye training on the accuracy of golfers´ putts in pressure situations and provides methods and basis for targeted attention training and control. 22 young golfers in China golf team aged from 13 to 18 were randomly assigned to the experimental group (quiet eye training group) and the control group (technical guidance group) according to gender. Both groups of participants underwent two consecutive weeks of push training (3 sets per day, 20 golf putts per set, rest for 3 min between sets) separately in accordance with the guidance of a professional psychological research group and an expert coach. Eye tracking technology, biofeedback technology, and subjective evaluation methods were used to test and analyze the push process of the two groups of participants before and after training under pressure situations (Eye movement behaviors and the heart rate were recorded by ASL Mobile Eye-XG and NeXus-2 biofeedback, pressure and state anxiety were evaluated by self-rating pressure scale and S-AI. Golf putting performance was recorded by a research graduate assistant). A higher hit ratio as well as lower pressure and SAI level was founded in quiet eye training group in the pressure situation, the quiet eye movement time and total fixation time was longer than technical group. The quiet eye training group has a better putting performance. Quiet eye training can improve the golf putting performance in pressure situations. After quiet eye training, the state anxiety decreased, the quiet eye movement time and the total fixation time increased in pressure situations.

Skill acquisition interventions for the learning of sports-related skills: A scoping review of randomised controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Skill acquisition science is the study of how motor skills are acquired, developed and/or learned. There is substantive evidence for general motor skill acquisition in controlled laboratory settings yet the literature on the learning of sports-related skills is typically less conclusive. OBJECTIVES: This scoping review aimed to summarise the current literature on skill acquisition intervention studies examining the learning of sports-related skills as part of a randomised controlled trial, by synthesizing and extracting the most relevant features. METHODS: Four electronic databases (PsychINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) were searched for relevant studies. The sample characteristics of these studies were extracted, and summarised. Two systematic searches of the literature were conducted. In the first search, eighty-six studies were retained. A second search was conducted in July 2022 to include new studies and specifically focused on the inclusion of within-subject design studies, resulting in the inclusion of 35 additional studies. A third search was conducted in May 2023 to include new studies resulting in the inclusion of 10 additional studies. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty studies across 29 sports were included in the review. The vast majority of the studies in this scoping review (n = 104) examined the learning of a sport-related skill in participants with no experience. Twenty-eight percent of all retained studies (n = 35) considered only the learning of a golf skill, and all studies were practiced in a laboratory environment, examining closed motor skills (n = 130). The most common intervention categories reported were attention (n = 22), instruction and demonstration (n = 20), practice design (n = 20), and perceptual training (n = 19). Nearly half of all studies used an immediate retention test within 48 h of the cessation of practice (n = 63), and just over one quarter of studies (n = 34) reported incorporating some form of transfer test. Eighty-six percent (n = 112) reported positive findings. CONCLUSIONS: The skewed focus on golf skills across a small number of skill acquisition interventions, the inconsistent use and reporting of performance measures, practice durations and measures of learning alongside the relatively small sample sizes consisting mostly of inexperienced learners and the skewed publication of positive findings should warrant caution. More empirical studies across a broader range of sports and with more consistent methodologies are needed to develop a robust pool of literature that can support academics and practitioners interested in which skill acquisition interventions could be used to influence the learning of sports-related skills.

Does Overhead Squat Performance Affect the Swing Kinematics and Lumbar Spine Loads during the Golf Downswing?

The performance of the overhead squat may affect the golf swing mechanics associated with golf-related low back pain. This study investigates the difference in lumbar kinematics and joint loads during the golf downswing between golfers with different overhead squat abilities. Based on the performance of the overhead squat test, 21 golfers aged 18 to 30 years were divided into the highest-scoring group (HS, N = 10, 1.61 ± 0.05 cm, and 68.06 ± 13.67 kg) and lowest-scoring group (LS, N = 11, 1.68 ± 0.10 cm, and 75.00 ± 14.37 kg). For data collection, a motion analysis system, two force plates, and TrackMan were used. OpenSim 4.3 software was used to simulate the joint loads for each lumbar joint. An independent t-test was used for statistical analysis. Compared to golfers demonstrating limitations in the overhead squat test, golfers with better performance in the overhead squat test demonstrated significantly greater angular extension displacement on the sagittal plane, smaller lumbar extension angular velocity, and smaller L4-S1 joint shear force. Consequently, the overhead squat test is a useful index to reflect lumbar kinematics and joint loading patterns during the downswing and provides a good training guide reference for reducing the risk of a golf-related lower back injury.

Conquering pressure! The effects of mild-anxiety training on motor performance under pressure during early motor learning.

We conceptually replicated the one previous study (see record 2009-13549-001) revealing that individuals who practice a motor skill under psychological pressure (anxiety training-AT) avoid performance deterioration when exposed to higher levels of pressure. We used a >3× larger sample size than the original study and attempted to shed light on mechanisms whereby AT may promote performance under pressure by measuring variables related to three theories of choking under pressure: attentional control theory (ACT), reinvestment theory, and the biopsychosocial model (BPSM) of challenge and threat. Eighty-four participants practiced 300 golf putts over 2 days with mild psychological pressure manipulations (AT group) or no pressure manipulations (control group). On the third day, all participants completed putting posttests with no pressure manipulations, mild pressure manipulations, or high-pressure manipulations. We had participants report their mental effort, movement reinvestment, and perceived challenge/threat after each posttest to investigate ACT, reinvestment theory, and the BPSM of challenge and threat, respectively. Results showed the AT group maintained their performance across posttests, whereas the control group performed worse under pressure. Additionally, results indicated that AT moderated changes in mental effort and movement reinvestment during pressure, although neither mechanism mediated the relationship between AT and performance under pressure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Some pressures are more equal than others: Effects of isolated pressure on performance.

It is commonly assumed that performance is impaired by pressure and that different types of individual situational factors can produce equivalent pressure. Our aim was to explore the psychophysiological effects of pressure to test this assumption. Eighty-one novices completed a golf putting task under control and eight individual pressure conditions: time, difficulty, video, team, goal, fame, shame, and distraction. Performance was measured by the number of holed putts and ball-hole distance. Psychological, physiological and kinematic measures were collected. Performance was impaired by time and difficulty conditions but improved by team, goal and shame conditions compared to control. Perceived pressure and effort were higher than control in all conditions except distraction. Conscious processing was greater than control in all conditions except distraction and time constraint. Heart rate was faster with time, team, fame and shame. Heart rate variability and muscle activity were largely unaffected. Putter kinematics provided evidence of swing profiles slowing and/or becoming constrained in conditions where conscious processing increased, while the swing became faster in the time-pressure condition where conscious processing was decreased. Taken together, these results reveal heterogenous effects of pressure on performance, with performance impaired, unaffected, and improved by individual pressure situations. Similarly, heterogeneity characterized the effects of pressure on psychological, physiological and kinematic responses associated with task performance. In sum, the evidence challenges the standard tacit assumptions about the pressure-performance relationship in sport.

The influence of motor learning methods on motor performance stability: The moderating effect of reinvestment propensity.

Different motor learning methods (explicit or analogy learning) show different effects on motor performance stability, and reinvestment propensity plays an important role in motor performance stability. This study aimed to explore whether reinvestment propensity, that is, movement self-consciousness (MS-C) and conscious motor processing (CMP) as two dimensions, played a moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. A total of 78 participants were randomly assigned to either the explicit or analogy learning group and their reinvestment propensity was measured. We recorded the number of golf putt goals in both the practice phase and the test phases (including a retention test and a stress test). In the moderating analysis, participants' reinvestment propensity was the moderating variable, and the dependent variable was motor performance stability (i.e., the difference between the two test phases). Results showed that motor performance was significantly different between practicing blocks, which indicated that the motor performance of learners was gradually increasing. The significant interaction between learning methods and the test phase on motor performance was detected, suggesting under stress, analogy learning was more likely to maintain the stability of motor performance, while explicit learning impaired the stability of motor performance. The CMP played a significant moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. The result indicated that for learners with low CMP, the motor performance stability of analogy learning was better than explicit learning, while there was no significant difference in the stability of motor performance between the two learning methods for learners with high reinvestment propensity. No significant evidence was found that MS-C played a moderating role in the relationship between motor learning methods and motor performance stability. These findings expand the theoretical framework of motor skill learning and provide theoretical support for motor performance stability.

3D Knee and Hip Angle Estimation With Reduced Wearable IMUs via Transfer Learning During Yoga, Golf, Swimming, Badminton, and Dance.

Wearable lower-limb joint angle estimation using a reduced inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensor set could enable quick, economical sports injury risk assessment and motion capture; however the vast majority of existing research requires a full IMU set attached to every related body segment and is implemented in only a single movement, typically walking. We thus implemented 3-dimensional knee and hip angle estimation with a reduced IMU sensor set during yoga, golf, swimming (simulated lower body swimming in a seated posture), badminton, and dance movements. Additionally, current deep-learning models undergo an accuracy drop when tested with new and unseen activities, which necessitates collecting large amounts of data for the new activity. However, collecting large datasets for every new activity is time-consuming and expensive. Thus, a transfer learning (TL) approach with long short-term memory neural networks was proposed to enhance the model's generalization ability towards new activities while minimizing the need for a large new-activity dataset. This approach could transfer the generic knowledge acquired from training the model in the source-activity domain to the target-activity domain. The maximum improvement in estimation accuracy (RMSE) achieved by TL is 23.6 degrees for knee flexion/extension and 22.2 degrees for hip flexion/extension compared to without TL. These results extend the application of motion capture with reduced sensor configurations to a broader range of activities relevant to injury prevention and sports training. Moreover, they enhance the capacity of data-driven models in scenarios where acquiring a substantial amount of training data is challenging.

A longitudinal interpretative phenomenological analysis study of athletes' lived experiences in elite disc golf competitions.

Gaining the inside perspective of an elite athlete throughout the competitive season provides a unique approach to understand the lived experience during multiple competitive events. The purpose of the present study was to investigate how elite disc golf athletes perceive and interpret their experiences of performing during various training and competitive events over the course of an elite disc golf season. Two elite disc golf athletes, one man and one woman, were recruited using homogeneous purposive sampling. The participants were interviewed three times and observed during three competitive events, as well as before and after a training session. A longitudinal interpretative phenomenological analysis (LIPA) was adopted to capture temporal and dynamic changes of the participants' lived experiences. The findings illustrated the athletes' personal experiences of performing during competitive disc golf events, with both athletes' experiences of competition changing during the season. Their competitive experiences appear to relate to the meaning disc golf has for the athletes, which in this study had both an experiential and existential level of meaning over time. Such a finding illustrates the importance of honoring athletes' unique experiences in making sense of their performances during an elite disc golf season. Taking the time to understand athletes' perceptions of their personal experiences appear important in attempting to understand their sense-making of their hot cognition before, during, and after competitions.

Risk of reverse golf club deformity with medial plating of distal femur fracture.

INTRODUCTION: This study described a deformity induced by medial plating of supracondylar distal femur fractures using plates that are precontoured for other anatomic locations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: OTA/AO 33A fractures were created in 12 sawbone femurs and fixed with either a proximal humerus locking plate (PH), an ipsilateral lateral tibial plateau plate (LTP), or an ipsilateral medial distal tibial plate (MDT). A motion capture system measured changes in length and rotation of the distal femur as the plate was applied. Each plate underwent four trials and the mean and standard deviation (SD) for each measurement was reported. An analysis of variance with post hoc Tukey test compared malreduction measures between plate types. RESULTS: All plates consistently created a varus deformity. There was lateral lengthening with a compensatory medial shortening and an increase in the lateral distal femoral angle. The distal fracture fragment was laterally translated, and internally rotated. The PH plate had significantly greater lateral length (27.39 mm SD 4.78, p = 0.007), shorter medial length (13.57 mm SD 4.99, p = 0.028), greater lateral translation (28.82 mm SD 5.70, p = 0.010) and greater widening of the lateral distal femoral angle (28.54° SD 4.98, p < 0.001) than the LTP and MDT plates. The MDT plate had significantly greater angulation anteriorly (8.40° SD 1.07, p < 0.001) and laterally (7.63° SD 3.10, p = 0.002) than the PH and LTP plates. There was no significant difference between plates in internal rotation (PH: 3.07° SD 2.79; LTP: 2.05° SD 1.05; MDT 3.81° SD 3.56; p = 0.659). CONCLUSION: When dual plating supracondylar distal femur fractures, poor plate positioning and a mismatch between plate contour and the slope of the medial distal femur can lead to varus angulation, internal rotation, and lateral translation or a "reverse golf club deformity". After comparing three types of precontoured plates, the authors recommend initial evaluation of the ipsilateral proximal tibial plate when placing a plate along the medial distal femur. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Improved Physical Health in Middle-Older Aged Golf Caddies Following 24 Weeks of High-Volume Physical Activity.

BACKGROUND: The physical demands of golf caddying, including walking while carrying a golf bag, may potentially affect body composition, and markers of metabolic, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal health. Therefore, this study examined the impact of 24 weeks of caddying on physical health in middle-older aged males. METHODS: Eleven full-time experienced male caddies (age: 59 [8] y; caddying experience: 14 [12] y) were recruited from a local golf course. The following were assessed at preseason and after 24 weeks of caddying (March-September 2022): body composition, heart rate, blood pressure, blood lipids, and performance tests (static and dynamic balance, strength, and submaximal fitness). Physical activity (PA) levels were assessed at preseason and at the mid-point of the caddying season. Across the caddying season, participants completed a monthly average of 24.0 (3.8) rounds. RESULTS: Following the caddying season, improvements in static balance (Δ = 13.5 s), dynamic balance (Δ = -1.8 s), and lower back absolute strength (Δ = 112.8 N), and muscle quality (Δ = 2.0 N·kg-1) were observed (all P < .05). Additionally, blood lipids, including total cholesterol (Δ = -0.6 mmol·L-1), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Δ = 0.1 mmol·L-1), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Δ = -0.6 mmol·L-1) (all P < .05), and body composition, including body mass (Δ = -2.7 kg), fat mass (Δ = -1.9 kg), fat percentage (Δ = -1.4%), fat-to-muscle ratio (Δ = -0.03), and body mass index (Δ = -0.9 kg·m-2) (all P < .05) improved. Caddying did not offer beneficial changes to cardiovascular variables or cardiorespiratory fitness (P > .05), while coronary heart disease risk score decreased (Δ = -3.3%) (P < .05). In relation to PA, light- (Δ = 145 min) and moderate-intensity (Δ = 71 min) PA, moderate to vigorous PA (Δ = 73 min), and total PA (Δ = 218 min) between preseason and the mid-point of the caddying season increased, while sedentary time (Δ = -172 min) decreased (all P < .05). CONCLUSION: Golf caddying can provide several physical health benefits such as improvements in various markers of cardiometabolic health, lower back absolute strength, and static and dynamic balance. The physical health improvements that caddying offers is likely contributed to by increased PA volume and intensity through walking on the golf course. Therefore, caddying may represent a feasible model for increasing PA volume and intensity and achieve physical health-related benefits.

Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on an international sample of golfers with disabilities.

INTRODUCTION: Participation in adaptive sports can mitigate the risk for obesity and social isolation/loneliness in individuals with disabilities (IWDs). The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and related changes in physical activity exacerbated existing barriers to participation in adaptive sports. There is limited literature assessing the potentially disproportionate effect of pandemic-related changes to physical activity in IWDs. OBJECTIVE: To determine how golf benefits IWDs and understand the effect of changes to golfing habits during the pandemic. DESIGN: A survey was distributed to all registered players (n = 1759) of the European Disabled Golf Association (April 2021). It assessed participants' demographic information (age, sex, race/ethnicity, nationality, impairment, golf handicap), golf habits before/after the pandemic, and perceived impact of golf and COVID-19-related golf restrictions to physical/mental health and quality of life (QoL). SETTING: European Disabled Golf Association (EDGA) worldwide database. PATIENTS: Responses were received from 171 IWDs representing 24 countries. Age 18 years or older and registration with EDGA were required for inclusion. INTERVENTIONS: Survey. OUTCOMES: Self-reported golfing habits, mental/physical health, and QoL. RESULTS: Mean participant age was 51.4 ± 12.9 years. Most respondents were amputees (41.5%) or had neurological diagnoses (33.9%). Pre-pandemic, 95% of respondents indicated that golf provided an opportunity to socialize, and most participants reported that golf positively affected physical/mental health and QoL. During the pandemic, more than 20% of participants reported golfing with fewer partners and 24.6% of participants reported playing fewer rounds per month (p < .001 for both); these findings were consistent across geographical region, ethnicity, and type of disability. Most participants (68.4%) perceived that their ability to golf had been impacted by COVID-19 and that these changes negatively affected their mental/physical health and QoL. CONCLUSIONS: Golf benefits the physical/mental health and QoL of IWDs internationally. Changes to golfing habits throughout the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected these individuals. This highlights the need to create opportunities for physical activity engagement and socialization among adaptive athletes during a global pandemic.

Inequities in the Training Environment and Health of Female Golfers Participating in the 2022 International Golf Federation World Amateur Team Championships.

OBJECTIVE: To assess health problems and training environment of female golfers participating in the 2022 World Amateur Team Championships (WATC) and to compare golfers (a) with and without health problems prior the WATC and (b) living and training in countries ranking in the upper versus lower 50% of the team results at the 2022 WATC. DESIGN: Cross-sectional cohort study using an anonymous questionnaire. SETTING: International Golf Federation WATC. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred sixty-two female golfers from 56 countries. INTERVENTIONS: N/A. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Golfers' answers on the presence and characteristics of health problems, their training environment, and to the Oslo Sport Trauma Research Centre Questionnaire. RESULTS: Almost all golfers (n = 162; 96%) answered the questionnaire. In the 4 weeks before the WATC, 101 golfers (63.1%) experienced 186 musculoskeletal complaints, mainly at the lumbar spine/lower back, wrist, or shoulder. Just half of the golfers (50.6%) performed injury prevention exercises always or often. More than a third (37.4%) of the golfers reported illness complaints and 32.5% mental health problems in the 4 weeks preceding the WATC. General anxiety, performance anxiety, and low mood/depression were the most frequent mental health problems. Golfers with injury complaints rated their daily training environment poorer. Golfers ranking in the lower 50% at the WATC had significantly less support staff, rated their training environment poorer, and had a higher prevalence of illness complaints and mental health problems. CONCLUSIONS: Effective illness and injury prevention programs should be implemented and better access to education and health support in the daily training environment provided.

Effects of Physical Training and Associations Between Physical Performance Characteristics and Golf Performance in Female Players: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis.

ABSTRACT: Robinson, L, Murray, A, Ehlert, A, Wells, J, Jarvis, P, Turner, A, Glover, D, Coughlan, D, Hembrough, R, and Bishop, C. Effects of physical training and associations between physical performance characteristics and golf performance in female players: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): e646-e655, 2023-The aims of this systematic review were to assess the association between physical performance and measures of golf performance, and the effects of physical training on measures of golf performance, in female golfers. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Medline, and CINAHL. Inclusion criteria required studies to (a) have conducted a physical training intervention of any duration in female players and determine the effects on measures of golf performance, (b) determine the association between physical performance in at least one test and golf performance in female players, and (c) be peer-reviewed and published in English language. Methodological quality was assessed using a modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index tool, and heterogeneity was examined through the Q statistic and I2 . Pooled effect sizes were calculated using standardized mean differences (SMDs) (with 95% confidence interval [CI]s) within a random-effects model, with Egger's regression test used to assess small study bias (inclusive of publication bias). Of the 2,378 articles screened, only 9 were included in the final review, with 3 of these being associative by design and 6 being training interventions. From an associative standpoint, clubhead speed (CHS) was reported in all 3 studies and was associated with measures of strength ( r = 0.54), lower-body power ( r = 0.60), upper-body power ( r = 0.56-0.57), and flexibility ( r = 0.52-0.71). When assessing the effects of physical training interventions, CHS was again the most commonly reported golf outcome measure ( n = 5). The random-effect model indicated that CHS significantly improves within each training group following training interventions (SMD = 0.73 [95% CIs: 0.32-1.14], Z = 3.50, p < 0.001), with trivial heterogeneity ( I2 = 0.00%, Q = 0.18; p = 0.9963) and no prevalence of small study bias depicted through the Egger's regression test ( z = -0.28, p = 0.78). From the available research, it seems that CHS can be positively affected from strength, power, and flexibility training interventions. From an associative standpoint, only 3 studies have been conducted solely in female players, with one showcasing questionable methodology. Future research should aim to carefully select test measures which better represent the physical capacities needed for the sport when determining the effects of and relationships with golf performance.

Kinematic, Kinetic, and Temporal Metrics Associated With Golf Proficiency.

ABSTRACT: McHugh, MP, O'Mahoney, CA, Orishimo, KF, Kremenic, IJ, and Nicholas, SJ. Kinematic, kinetic, and temporal metrics associated with golf proficiency. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): 599-606, 2024-The biomechanics of the golf swing have been studied extensively, but the literature is unclear on which metrics are indicative of proficiency. The purpose of this study was to determine which metrics identified golf proficiency. It was hypothesized that discrete kinematic, kinetic, and temporal metrics would vary depending on proficiency and that combinations of metrics from each category would explain specific proficiency metrics. Kinematic, kinetic, and temporal metrics and their sequencing were collected for shots performed with a driver in 33 male golfers categorized as proficient, average, or unskilled (based on a combination of handicap, ball velocity, and driving distance). Kinematic data were collected with high-speed motion analysis, and ground reaction forces (GRF) were collected from dual force plates. Proficient golfers had greater x-factor at ball impact and greater trunk deceleration before ball impact compared with average ( p < 0.05) and unskilled ( p < 0.01) golfers. Unskilled golfers had lower x-factor at the top of the back swing and lower peak x-factor, and they took longer to reach peak trunk velocity and peak lead foot GRF compared with average ( p < 0.05) and proficient ( p < 0.05) golfers. A combination of 2 kinematic metrics (x-factor at ball impact and peak pelvis velocity), 1 kinetic metric (peak lead foot GRF), and 2 timing metrics (the timing of peak trunk and arm velocity) explained 85% of the variability in ball velocity. The finding that x-factor at ball impact and trunk deceleration identified golf proficiency points to the potential for axial trunk rotation training to improve performance.

Modeling injury severity of crashes involving golf carts: A case study of The Villages, Florida.

OBJECTIVE: Crashes involving golf carts (GCs) have been on an increasing trend in recent years, particularly in the United States. This study focuses on analyzing GC crashes in the Florida community known as The Villages, one of the largest GC-oriented communities in the nation and worldwide. The objective was to evaluate the injury severity of crashes involving GCs in a retirement community where GCs are a common mode of transportation. METHODS: The ordinal logistic regression (OLR) and Decision Tree Ensemble (DTE) models were used to analyze the injury severity of 616 GC-related crashes. Models' accuracy parameters were used to check their reliability. RESULTS: The analysis revealed that GC crash severity is influenced by various factors. Factors found to be significant by the OLR model in determining injury severity include ejection of one or more occupants from the GC, the extent of damage to the GC, GC speed prior to the crash, roadway characteristics (including divided roadways, traffic control devices, paved shoulders, and T-intersections), and roll-over incidents. The OLR model demonstrated an overall accuracy of approximately 71% in predicting injury severity. The DTE model performed better, with an overall accuracy of 78%. The OLR model's findings were supported by the DTE model, which identified estimated GC speed, occupant(s) ejection from the GC, estimated GC vehicle damage, intersection type, and type of shoulder as the most important factors influencing GC crash severity. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding these factors is vital for transportation agencies to develop effective strategies to reduce the severity of GC crashes, ensuring the safety of GC users. This study provides recommendations to transportation agencies on measures to improve the safety of GCs.

Golf skill learning: An external focus of attention enhances performance and motivation.

An external focus of attention has been shown to enhance the performance and learning of motor skills, relative to an internal focus (see Chua, Jimenez-Diaz, Lewthwaite, Kim, & Wulf, 2021). In the present study, we examined possible motivational consequences of learners' experience of greater movement success with an external focus. Participants were asked to learn a golf pitch shot. In addition to measuring learning, we assessed self-efficacy, as well as positive and negative affect in groups that received external versus internal focus instructions. Furthermore, we examined the feasibility of providing several focus instructions in the same practice session as the learning of complex skills typically requires more than one instructional cue. The results showed that skill learning was enhanced by instructions that promoted external foci, as measured by golf shot accuracy on delayed retention and transfer tests. The external focus group also showed higher positive affect and reduced negative affect at the end of practice, and higher self-efficacy before retention testing, compared with the internal focus group. These findings provide support for several assumptions of the OPTIMAL theory (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). From a practical perspective, they highlight the attentional and motivational benefits of an external focus.

Physical determinants of golf swing performance in competitive youth golfers.

This study investigated measures of physical fitness and golf swing performance in competitive youth golfers. Sixty-four golfers, subdivided into three handicap groups (CAT0, <1 handicap, n = 21; CAT1, 1-5 handicap, n = 20; CAT2, >5 handicap, n = 23), were assessed for isometric strength, power, movement competency and core endurance. Clubhead speed (CHS) and carry distance for 6-iron and driver were also measured. When controlled for maturity offset, CAT0 golfers produced significantly greater peak power, isometric absolute and relative peak force, movement competency, and jump distance than higher handicap golfers (all p < 0.05). Maturity status was strongly associated with CHS and carry distance for both clubs (R2 = 0.552-0.784). Linear regressions showed maturity offset explained a larger amount of variance in CHS (driver = 78.4%, 6-iron = 71.3%) and carry distance (driver = 55.2%, 6-iron = 57.4%) than handicap. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that peak power explained 79.4% and 82.4% of variation in 6-iron and driver CHS, respectively, while isometric absolute peak force explained 69.6% and 74.3% of the variation in 6-iron and driver carry distance, respectively. Subsequently, interventions targeting the development of peak force and power could aid golf swing performance in young golfers.

Location Matters-Can a Smart Golf Club Detect Where the Club Face Hits the Ball?

In golf, the location of the impact, where the clubhead hits the ball, is of imperative nature for a successful ballflight. Direct feedback to the athlete where he/she hits the ball could improve a practice session. Currently, this information can be measured via, e.g., dual laser technology; however, this is a stationary and external method. A mobile measurement method would give athletes the freedom to gain the information of the impact location without the limitation to be stationary. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether it is possible to detect the impact location via a motion sensor mounted on the shaft of the golf club. To answer the question, an experiment was carried out. Within the experiment data were gathered from one athlete performing 282 golf swings with an 7 iron. The impact location was recorded and labeled during each swing with a Trackman providing the classes for a neural network. Simultaneously, the motion of the golf club was gathered with an IMU from the Noraxon Ultium Motion Series. In the next step, a neural network was designed and trained to estimate the impact location class based on the motion data. Based on the motion data, a classification accuracy of 93.8% could be achieved with a ResNet architecture.